A ‣ History – the great and the ordinary

Archaeologists¹ patiently work among the remains of past civilisations, trying to understand once-powerful vast empires², kingdoms³ and dynasties⁴. Since the dawn⁵ of civilisation, societies have recorded the reigns⁶ of kings and emperors, the fate of their heirs⁷ and successors⁸ and major events such as coronations⁹, wars and conquests¹⁰. All this can be recorded in manuscripts¹¹ or on stone tablets. When an heir succeeds to the throne and is crowned, we usually learn how long he/she reigns. Meanwhile, the lives of the ordinary people, the peasants¹² and labourers¹³, the pattern of their days, the migrations¹⁴ of social groups, oft en go unrecorded, and archaeologists and historians have a tougher task in interpreting whatever shreds¹⁵ of evidence remain. But for many, this is the real history and archaeology, the true key to our past.

¹ person who studies the material evidence of past societies
² group of countries ruled by a single person
³ individual countries ruled by a king or queen
⁴ different rulers who are all from the same family, or a period of time that a country is controlled by them
⁵ beginning
⁶ period that a king, queen or emperor rules
⁷ person who is legally entitled to continue the work of someone important who has died or who has the same position as they had
⁸ person who takes over from another person
⁹ event when a king or queen receives his/her crown
¹⁰ when someone or an army defeats and takes over another country
¹¹ texts written by hand
¹² person who works on the land and earns little, usually having a low social status
¹³ person who does unskilled manual work
¹⁴ moving from one place to another in large numbers
¹⁵ very small amounts

B ‣ Historical eras

In ancient Egypt, the Bronze Age began about 5,000 years ago. [period when the metals copper and tin began to be used to make weapons, tools, etc.; we also talk of the Stone Age, the Iron Age]

Life in medieval times was hard. [of or from the European Middle Ages, i.e. 1000–1500 AD]

I love the great Renaissance art of Italy. [period of new growth of interest and activity in the arts especially in Europe in the 14th to 16th centuries]

Magnificent architecture and works of art were created in Central America in the pre-colonial era. [period before Europeans arrived in large numbers and took power; opp. = post-colonial]

C ‣ Military history

infantry: soldiers on foot (uncountable)

cavalry: soldiers on horseback (uncountable)

(suit of) armour: metal protective clothing worn by soldiers

chariot: two-wheeled vehicle pulled by a horse and used in ancient times for racing and war

galleon: large sailing ship with three or four masts, used in the 15th to 18th centuries

D ‣ People

warlord: a military leader who controls a country or, more oft en, an area within a country

slave: person legally owned by someone else and who has to work for them (noun = slavery)

ruler: leader of a country

explorer: someone who travels to places that no one is thought ever to have visited, in order to find out what is there

merchant: someone who buys and sells things in large amounts, especially by trading with other countries

monarch: neutral term for a king or queen (a country with a king or queen at its head can also be called a monarchy)

the nobility: collective term for people of the highest social rank in a society