A ‣ War and violence

War is often seen as a last resort¹ when relations between states break down totally and diplomacy² and such measures as economic sanctions³ have failed. The decision to take military action is rarely made lightly, since even the best-planned military operations, carried out with the benefit of the latest hi-tech weaponry⁴, inevitably result in civilian casualties⁵. Military intervention⁶ may be carried out with the goal of regime change⁷, but it is often the leaders of tyrannical⁸ regimes who are the most difficult to overthrow⁹. Even more tragic than wars between states is civil war¹⁰, which often begins with civil unrest¹¹ and clashes¹² between rival¹³ ethnic¹⁴ religious or political groups, and may escalate¹⁵ into all-out¹⁶ war and end in the brutal suppression¹⁷ of one group by another or, in extreme cases, ethnic cleansing¹⁸ and massacres¹⁹. Conflict resolution²⁰ may take years to bring into effect, and mistrust²¹ and hatred²² between groups within the same country may continue for many years.

¹ something you do when everything else has failed
² activities concerning the relationships between governments
³ official orders, such as the stopping of trade, taken against a country to make it obey international law
⁴ weapons in general / of different types
⁵ people injured or killed who are not members of the military or the police
⁶ intentionally becoming involved in a difficult situation to improve it or stop it from getting worse
⁷ changing the government or leader of a country, especially by force
⁸ using power in a cruel way over people in a country or group
⁹ remove somebody from power using force
¹⁰ war between groups who live in the same country
¹¹ disagreement or fighting between groups
¹² fights or arguments
¹³ who compete against one another
¹⁴ national or racial
¹⁵ become greater or more serious
¹⁶ complete and total
¹⁷ violent and cruel ending of the right or freedom to do something
¹⁸ organised attempt by one racial or political group to completely remove from a country or area anyone who belongs to another particular racial group, using violence to achieve this
¹⁹ the killing of large numbers of people
²⁰finding a way to end conflict and the negative feelings between groups
²¹ lack or absence of trust
²² feeling of intense dislike

B ‣ Other words and expressions relating to war and peace

Powerful West African rulers waged war on their neighbours in the 19th century. [fought a war against]

Hostilities finally ceased after five years of bloodshed. [acts of war]

The invading army besieged the city. [attacked by surrounding it for a period of time (noun = siege)]

The patrol was ambushed on a remote highway. [attacked unexpectedly from secret positions (noun = ambush)]

The two armies signed a truce in 2016. [agreement during a war to stop fighting for a time]

A ceasefire was declared in 2015. [agreement between two armies or groups to stop fighting]

A peacekeeping force entered the country in 2016. [neutral soldiers who keep the peace in a divided society]

International observers monitored the ceasefire. [outside, neutral people or body]

The rebels fought a long campaign against the dictatorship. The rebellion lasted ten years before the dictator was defeated. [planned group of military activities] [people fighting against their government]

A suicide bomber killed 25 people at a military base yesterday. [person who lets off explosives, deliberately killing themselves in the process]

C ‣ Metaphors of warfare

The government is waging war on drink-driving.

Paparazzi are besieging the star’s Hollywood home.

A major advertising campaign was planned to launch the new cosmetics range.

Several companies are battling to win market supremacy in sales of smartphones.

We have a major fight on our hands if we are to save the company from bankruptcy.

A fleet of bullet-proof cars followed the President’s limousine. [a fleet normally consists of a large number of ships]