English Vocabulary in Use Upper-intermediate » Unit 63: Cause, reason, purpose and result
You probably know how to use words like because, since and as to refer to the cause of or reason for something. Here are some other ways to express cause and reason:
The collision was due to the icy conditions.
The collision was caused by ice on the road.
The cause of the collision was ice on the road.
The heavy rain caused the river to flood.
Owing to the icy conditions, the two cars collided.
If you use owing to with a clause, you must follow it with the fact that. In this example, the clause is underlined. Owing to the fact that the conditions were icy, the two cars collided. (NOT Owing to the conditions were icy, …)
Here are some other 'cause' words and typical contexts. They are all rather formal, and more suitable for written use.
The rise in prices sparked (off) a lot of political protest. (often used for very strong, perhaps violent, reactions to events)
The President's statement gave rise to / provoked / generated a lot of criticism. (slightly less strong than spark (off))
The new law has brought about / led to great changes in education. (often used for political/social change)
This problem stems from the inflation of recent years. (explaining the direct origins of events and states)
The court case arose from / out of allegations made in a newspaper. (the allegations started the process that led to the court case)
Her reason for not going with us was that she had no money. or The reason (why) she didn't go with us was that ... (less formal)
The following sentences are all fairly formal, and more frequent in written English:
I wonder what his motives were in sending that email? (purpose)
I wonder what prompted her to send that letter? (reason/cause)
She wrote to the press with the aim of exposing the scandal. (purpose)
I've invited you here with a view to resolving our differences. (sounds a bit more indirect than with the aim of)
He refused to answer on the grounds that his lawyer wasn't there. (reason)
The purpose of her visit was to inspect the equipment.
Most of these expressions are fairly formal, and more frequent in written English:
He did no work. As a result / As a consequence / Consequently, he failed his exams.
The result/consequence of all these changes is that no one is happy any more.
The examples with consequence/consequently sound more formal than result.
His remarks resulted in everyone getting angry. (verb + in)
The events had an outcome that no one could have predicted. [result of a process or events, or of meetings, discussions, etc.]
The upshot of all these problems was that we had to start again. (less formal than outcome) When the election results were announced, chaos ensued. (very formal)
The words you need to communicate with confidence. Vocabulary explanations and practice for elementary level (A2) learners of English. Perfect for both self-study and classroom activities. Quickly expand your vocabulary with 60 units of easy to understand explanations and practice exercises.
The words you need to communicate with confidence. Vocabulary explanations and practice for pre-intermediate and intermediate level (B1) learners of English. Perfect for both self-study and classroom activities. Quickly expand your vocabulary with 100 units of easy to understand explanations and practice exercises.
The words you need to communicate with confidence. Vocabulary explanations and practice for advanced level (C1 to C2) learners of English. Perfect for both self-study and classroom activities. Quickly expand your vocabulary with over 100 units of easy to understand explanations and practice exercises.